The nature of crystal lattices in single crystals of pure metals.

The nature of crystal lattices in single crystals of pure metals. The main problem is that, using X-rays, the types of crystal lattices of different metals were determined, and why they are such and not others is not yet known. For example, copper crystallizes in the fcc lattice, and iron in the bcc lattice, which, when heated, becomes fcc and this transition is used in heat treatment of steels. Usually in the literature, the metallic bond is described as carried out through the socialization of the outer electrons of the atoms and does not have the property of directionality. Although there are attempts (see below) to explain the directional metal bond since the elements crystallize into a specific type of lattice. The main types of crystal lattices of metals are body-centered cubic; face-centered cubic; hexagonal close-packed. It is still impossible in the general case to deduce the crystal structure of a metal from the electronic structure of the atom from quantum-mechanical calculations, although, for example, Ganzhorn and Delinger pointed out a possible connection between the presence of a cubic body-centered lattice in the subgroups of titanium, vanadium, chromium and the presence of valence d in the atoms of these metals. -orbitals. It is easy to see that the four hybrid orbitals are directed along the four solid diagonals of the cube and are well suited for bonding each atom with its 8 neighbors in a body-centered cubic lattice. In this case, the remaining orbitals are directed to the centers of the unit cell faces and, possibly, can take part in the bond of the atom with its six second neighbors. The first coordination number (K.Ch.1) \ “8 \” plus the second coordination number (K.Ch.2) \ “6 \” in total is \ “14 \”. Let us show that the metallic bond in the closest packing (HEC and FCC) between the centrally selected atom and its neighbors, in the general case, is presumably carried out through 9 (nine) directional bonds, in contrast to the number of neighbors equal to 12 (twelve) (coordination number). In the literature, there are many factors affecting crystallization, so I decided to remove them as much as possible, and the metal model in the article, let’s say, is ideal, i.e. all atoms are the same (pure metal), crystal lattices without inclusions, without interstices, without defects, etc. Using the Hall effect and other data on properties, as well as calculations by Ashcroft and Mermin, for me the main factor determining the type of lattice turned out to be the outer electrons of the core of an atom or ion, which resulted from the transfer of some of the electrons to the conduction band. It turned out that the metallic bond is due not only to the sharing of electrons, but also to the external electrons of the atomic cores, which determine the direction or type of the crystal lattice. Let’s try to connect the outer electrons of an atom of a given element with the structure of its crystal lattice, taking into account the need for directed bonds (chemistry) and the presence of socialized electrons (physics) responsible for the galvanomagnetic properties. see the main part of the work on p. https://natureofchemicalelements.blogspot.com I believe that the main achievement of my work is that the real first coordination number for atoms in single crystals of pure metals (fcc and HEC crystal lattices) was determined equal to 9 or 15. This number was deduced from the physical and chemical properties of crystals. About bond electrons in single crystals of metals, which determine the type of crystal lattice. For potassium, sodium, rubidium, cesium in the conduction band, 1 electron and 8 bond electrons each – the Hall constant is negative (in the conduction band, one electron from an atom), the type of bcc lattice … each selected atom has 8 neighbors in the crystal lattice … Nickel, copper, silver, platinum, palladium and gold have an fcc lattice … crystallization requires 15 bond electrons from an atom … let’s look at nickel as an example 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2 external electrons in total 16 (3p6 3d8 4s2) one went into the conduction band 15 entered into communication with neighboring atoms … this one electron from the conduction band is checked by the Hall constant, if it is negative, then in the conduction band, 1-2 electrons, and if positive, then, as a rule, more than two. Magnesium – 2 electrons are bonded to the nucleus, 9 bond electrons (GEK) and one electron in the conduction band – Hall constant is negative, aluminum – 2 electrons are bonded to the nucleus, 9 bond electrons (FCC) and two electrons in the conduction band – Hall constant is negative. In metal crystals, atoms are united not only by the socialization of conduction electrons, but also by bond electrons, which were revealed in my work. For some single crystal elements, I may be mistaken in counting the bond electrons (9 + 6 or 12 + 3), which affect the formation of a particular type of crystal lattice. However, it seems to me that such a pattern exists.

How did I start to build models of ideal single crystals of pure metals?

Ideal crystals for getting away from dependence on lattice defects, impurities and other inclusions.

Using simple examples, we will show that one bond for a diamond at a density
packing 34% and coordination number 4 account for 34%: 4 = 8.5%.

The cubic primitive lattice has a packing density of 52% and
coordination number 6 accounts for 52%: b = 8.66%.

For a cubic body-centered lattice, the packing density is 68% and
coordination number 8 accounts for 68%: 8 = 8.5%.

For a cubic face-centered lattice, the packing density is 74% and the coordination number 12 is 74%: 12 = 6.16% (!!!), and if 74%: 9 = 8.22%.

For a hexagonal lattice, the packing density is 74% and the coordination number 12 is 74%: 12 = 6.16%, and if 74%: 9 = 8.22%. (!!!)

Obviously, these 8.66-8.22% carry some physical meaning.
The remaining 26% are multiples of 8.66 and 100% hypothetical packing density is possible with 12 bonds. But is such a possibility real?
The outer electrons of the last shell or subshells of the metal atom form the conduction band. The number of electrons in the conduction band affects
Hall constant, compression ratio, etc.
Let us construct a model of an element metal so that the outer electrons of the last shell or subshells of the atomic core remaining after filling the conduction band in some way affect the structure of the crystalline
structures (for example: for the bcc lattice-8 “valence” electrons, and for HEC and fcc-12 or 9).
As a result of studying the lattices of chemical elements, we can say that the bcc lattices of light elements are formed by 8 bond electrons, and heavy by 14 electrons of the atomic core. FCC lattices are formed by 9 bond electrons for light elements and by 15 for heavy ones.

Then I began to fill the conduction band with the outer electrons of the atoms.

One of the remarkable features of the Hall effect is, however, that in some metals the Hall coefficient is positive, and therefore the carriers in them should apparently have a charge opposite to the charge
electron. This property required an explanation.
Option one: a thin closed tube, completely filled with electrons except one.
With such a filling of the zone, with the local movement of an electron, the opposite movement of the \ “place \” of the electron, which has not filled the tube, is observed, that is
motion of a non-negative charge. Option two: in a tube with one electron, only one charge can move – a negatively charged electron.
It can be seen from these two extreme variants that the sign of the carriers determined by the Hall coefficient should, to some extent, depend on the filling of the conduction band with electrons.
The order of motion of electrons will also be imposed by their own conditions and the structure of the conduction band, and temperature, and for magnetic materials and scattering by magnetic quasiparticles – magnons.
In the table below, it is easy to see that almost all superconducting metals in the conduction band contain two or more electrons from an atom.
Let us fill the conduction band with electrons so that the outer electrons of the atomic cores influence
on the formation of a type of crystallization lattice. Suppose that the number of external bond electrons on the last shell of the atomic core, after filling
the conduction band is equal to the number of neighboring atoms (coordination number) in the crystal lattice.

Let us summarize the results of the work. According to my constructions, for almost all metals, conduction electrons (their number), bond electrons, which mainly determine the type of crystal lattice and electrons associated with the nucleus, are determined, possibly with small errors.

Nature of superconductivity.

Electrons in the conduction band at low temperatures are combined into a Bose-Einstein gas, which has the property of superfluidity, therefore, the so-called superconductivity is actually superfluidity of an electron gas without resistance to the crystal structure.

I explained why there is resistance to the current and remained during the transition, and the electron gas, due to superfluidity, moves along the conductor for an infinitely long time … and also why this current is not infinitely large with the so-called zero resistance of a type I superconductor. The ability of a substance in a special state, which occurs at temperatures close to absolute zero, to flow through narrow slits and capillaries without friction. This is superfluidity.

Luminiferous and gravitational ether.

Ether in all its glory!
It is assumed that during the formation of matter (proton, hydrogen, helium, etc.) from ether, ether is absent in the atoms of matter or is present in insignificant quantities and therefore the ether surrounding the matter exerts pressure on it. Then the more matter, the greater the pressure of the ether.
Here is what is alternative here … The velocities of the planets are reference, the directions of their rotation are reference … It remains only to construct a model of the Galaxy corresponding to these data.
The MM experiment confirmed the absence of the etheric wind on the planet’s surface and thereby indicated that the Earth in this case moves with the ether. About what I am writing for this option all the data on the solar system. Nobody considered this option. This is called a test of the purity of the experiment. I have shown a variant of the model in which the etheric wind is absent, but the presence of ether is possible if it moves with the planet. Shown is a hypothetical connection between the rotations of the planets and the Sun.
The nature of gravity is the pressure of the ether.
If, according to Tesla’s hypothesis, the Sun rotates the ether, which in turn rotates the planets, then …
The black hole rotates the entire galaxy and stars and planets through the ether … The ether presses on the black hole so that X-rays are emitted from the hole perpendicular to the plane of the galaxy, therefore we rotate … Perpetual motion in the Universe.
Orbital velocities of the planets of the solar system
Mercury – 47.87
Venus —— 35.02
Land ——- 29.78
Mars ——— 24.13
Jupiter —— 13.07
Saturn ——- 9.69
Uranium ———- 6.81
Neptune ——- 5.43
Pluto ——- 4.67 km / s
Even here it can be seen that rotating the ether the Sun sets the highest speeds to the nearest planets.
Own angular velocities,, rad / s
Mercury – 4.13 * 10 (-6)
Venus —— 2.99 * 10 (-7)
Earth ——- 7.3 * 10 (-5)
Mars ——– 7.09 * 10 (-5)
Jupiter —– 1.76 * 10 (-4)
Saturn —— 1.66 * 10 (-4)
Uranium ——– 1.0 * 10 (-4)
Neptune —– 1.1 * 10 (-4)
Pluto —– 1.14 * 10 (-5)
The larger the planet’s diameter, the faster its ether layers rotate.
Again. The black hole rotates the entire galaxy and stars and planets through the ether … The ether presses on the black hole so that X-rays are emitted from the hole perpendicular to the plane of the galaxy, therefore we rotate …
It is usually customary to consider the rotation from the north direction, that is, as if the observer is located in the region of the North Star. In this case, all the planets of the solar system, the Sun itself, as well as almost all other bodies will rotate counterclockwise.
The situation is more complicated with the rotation of the planets around their own axes. If you look at everything from the same northern direction, it turns out that 6 planets rotate clockwise (it should be understood that the axes of the planets are not strictly perpendicular to the planes of their orbits, but have some inclination), but two planets still violate this order. Venus and Uranus.
I connected the daily rotation rates of the planets with their diameters … and
I can say that the speeds of rotation of the planets around the star are also natural regardless of the masses of the planets and do not obey any inertia.
if viewed from the North Star, the Sun rotates counterclockwise and all the planets of our system also rotate counterclockwise … we look at the daily rotations, six planets rotate clockwise and only Venus and Uranus are slightly different, probably due to the peculiarities of the internal structure. ..
What laws of Newton or Einstein speak about the directions of these rotations and the magnitudes of the velocities?
probably it would be possible to launch a probe along the Earth’s orbit towards its motion with a probe density equal to the Earth’s density … and see what effect the ether moving towards the probe will have on the probe’s movement …
The reason for the daily and annual rotation of the planets.
if the Sun rotates the ether, and the ether rotates the planet, then the duration of the planet’s daily rotation will depend on the diameter of this planet … on the day of the maximum of Mercury, the minimum of Jupiter. In addition, if you look at the angular velocities of the planets, they hardly differ in magnitude, as if the planets are floating in some liquid. This happens because the concentric layers of aether, spun by the Sun, have different speeds.
What rotates the Earth rotates the Moon. We see how the moon rotates around the earth and its earth axis. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EWas-dkx29g
the electromagnetic wave is generated by the accelerated electrons of the antenna, and since it went into space and as we are shown by the oscillations of the electric and magnetic fields in it, then there are probably charges in it, in a vacuum …
since the vacuum gives rise to a pair of electron and positron, it means that there are neutral particles of the ether containing these charges
if we introduce a test charge, then the ether particles are polarized and we get an electric field
further, if we begin to move the test charge, these dipoles (polarized etherons) will begin to rotate and we, i.e. i get magnetic field …

Abstract.

This article sets out the views on the classification of all known chemical elements, those fundamental components of which the Earth and the entire Universe consists.
The innovation of this work is that in the table of elements constructed according to the Mendeleyev’s law and Van-den- Broek’s rule, new chemical elements with atomic numbers 72-75 and 108-111 are supposedly revealed, and also it is shown that for heavy elements starting with hafnium, the nuclei of atoms contain a larger number of protons than is generally accepted. Perhaps the mathematical apparatus of quantum mechanics missed some solutions because the atomic nucleus in calculations is taken as a point.
All cells in the table are full. If this table takes place, I would like to name groups of elements with the numbers 72-75 and 108-111, the islets of Filipenka Henadzi.

About table of elements. New atomic numbers.

 

table of elements, new atomic numbers for any elements, new chemical elements, about metallic bond

Probably James Chadwick made the mistake of measuring the charges of the nuclei of atoms.

Not exactly an error in the measurements, and that he agreed with the periodic table and the result was treated as a charge equal to 78, as shown in Table 77.6 nucleus for platinum.
result 29,3- longer true 0.3 was obtained for copper, 46.3 for silver has less true at 0.7, and for platinum is less than the “true” only 0.6. Reduction of protons associated with each other shielding measurements. Therefore platinum charge 78 results had to be obtained is less, or in other words at the atomic nucleus charge of platinum over 78 and 82 is equal.
We construct a model of the atomic nucleus. We know that protons and neutrons are in the nucleus. In each subsequent element over a proton, and a few neutrons. Why? The volume is growing faster than the surface. When alpha rays are emitted from the nucleus of a helium nucleus approximately equal energies. By placing the nucleus of a helium atom on the surface of the nucleus, we obtain with some accuracy, that the rest of the neutrons are in the nucleus. And the question as whether and when it is inside a proton nucleus. According to the Law and the Mendeleev Brook rules, as well as the resulting core model designed physical table of the elements.
In this table, platinum is №82. Protons start placed inside the core 72 to the element 75. Not yet open elements.
The table filled with all the cells. Do not Mendeleev table, and complex chemical structure. Lanthanides and actinides, which must be positioned vertically according to their chemical properties, as “home” located under the table horizontally. Periodic law is not only in chemistry but also in physics
Please repeat the experience of James Chadwick to measure the charge of the nucleus of an atom of platinum. The charges of the nuclei of copper and silver can not be questioned. But according to this table of elements built according to the law of Mendeleev and the rule of van Broek since charges hafnium nuclei can be 4 units more than made today at the same weight. To set the conditions at the plant, probably important to know the true charge of the uranium nucleus.
http://matterdark-hfilipen.blogspot.com

The rule of Van den Broeck, a lover of nuclear physics, turned out to be
more general than the periodicity of Mendeleev and the calculations of
the quantum mechanics of the atomic orbitals. The table should be filled
with all cells according to law or rule, and if somebody does not fill
in, this should be explained Law or rule. Therefore, the cells of the
physical table were filled in both at http://matterdark-hfilipen.blogspot.com
and unknown items with numbers 72–75 and 108–111 appeared. Which
required explanation. When examining the results of measuring the
charges of nuclei or atomic numbers by James Chadwick, I noticed that
the charge of the core of platinum is rather not 78, but tends to 82,
which corresponds to the developed table. For nearly 30 years I have
raised the question of the repetition of measurements of the charges of
atomic nuclei. Uranium is probably more charged than accepted, and it is
used at nuclear power plants.

Lithium and beryllium, as a function of temperature, change the crystal lattices in much the same way as scandium and titanium. That speaks about the correctness of our table of chemical elements.

The main problem lies in the fact that by using X-rays determined the crystal lattices of different materials, and why they are, and not the other is not yet known. For example copper crystallizes in the fcc lattice, and iron in the BCC, which when heated becomes FCC is used for heat treatment of steels. Copper by heating the crystal lattice does not change.
The literature provides many factors influencing the crystallization so I decided to remove them as much as possible, and metal model of the article say so perfect, that is, all atoms are identical (pure metal) without inclusions without introduction, without defects, etc. using Hall effect and other data on the properties and calculations Ashcroft and Mermin-, my main determining factor in the type of lattice appeared core of the atom or ion, which has turned out as a result of the transfer of the electrons in the conduction band.
It turned out that the metallic bond is due not only to the socialization of electrons, and the outer electrons and atomic cores, which determine the direction or type of crystal lattice.Changing the metal lattice type it may be associated with the transition of an electron in the conduction band or return it from this zone. The phase transition.I think that phase transitions are possible without changing the lattice type. For example copper. I suppose that in the conduction band can be in copper and one electron from an atom, or maybe two, depending on external conditions.
Now, when microelectronics turned into nanoelectronics and threatens to go to angstromelektronics, it is important to know the patterns of distribution of atoms (atomic size is measured in units of Angstroms) in the crystal lattice of the single crystal. http://natureofcrystalstructure.blogspot.com

The first attempts to classify elements brought triads, then periodicity, then nuclear charges and, perhaps, some new dependence of the organization on the nature of the atoms of chemical elements.

О таблице элементов и металлической связи в монокристаллах.

Наверное Джеймс Чедвик сделал ошибку, измеряя заряды ядер атомов.
Точнее не ошибку в измерениях, а в том что согласился с таблицей Менделеева и полученный результат для платины 77,6 был трактован, как заряд ядра равный 78, согласно таблице.
Для меди был получен результат 29,3- больше истинного на 0,3, для серебра 46,3 уже меньше истинного на 0,7, а для платины меньше “истинного” всего на 0,6. Уменьшение связано с экранированием протонов друг другом при измерениях. Поэтому для платины с зарядом 78 результат должен был быть меньше полученного, или другими словами у атома платины заряд ядра больше 78 и равен 82.
Построим модель ядра атома. Знаем что в ядре находятся протоны и нейтроны. В каждом последующем элементе на протон больше, а нейтронов на несколько. Почему? Обьем растет быстрее чем поверхность. При альфа излучении из ядра вылетают ядра гелия примерно одинаковых энергий. Разместив ядра гелия на поверхности ядра атома, получаем с некоторой точностью, что остальные нейтроны находятся внутри ядра. И вопрос а может ли и когда находится внутри ядра протон. Согласно закона Менделеева и правила Брука, а также полученной модели ядра разработана физическая таблица элементов.
В этой таблице платина находится под номером 82. Протоны начинают размещаться внутри ядра с 72 по 75 элемент. Пока не открытые элементы.
В таблице заполнены все ячейки. У Д.И.Менделеева не таблица, а сложная химическая конструкция. Лантаноиды и актиноиды, которые должны располагаться вертикально согласно их химических свойств, по “домашнему” расположены под таблицей горизонтально. Периодический закон входит не только в химию, но и в физику
Прошу повторить опыт джеймса чедвика по измерению заряда ядра атома платины. Заряды ядер меди и серебра сомнению не подлежат. Но согласно этой таблице элементов построенной как по закону Менделеева а также по правилу ван-Брука начиная с гафния заряды ядер могут быть на 4 единицы больше чем принято на сегодня при той же массе. Для задания режимов на АЭС, наверное важно знать истинный заряд ядра урана.
Дмитрий Иванович интуитивно чувствовал, что должна быть таблица элементов, а не сложная конструкция, как у него, но ему наверное не хватило знаний по устройству атома и ядра атома. Поэтому лантаноиды и актиноиды у него расположены горизонтально. http://newtableofelements.blogspot.com

Правило Ван-ден-Брука, любителя ядерной физики, оказалось более общим, чем периодичность Менделеева и расчеты квантовой механики. У таблицы должны быть заполнены все ячейки согласно закона или правила, а при незаполнении какой-то, должно быть обьяснение этого этим законом или правилом. Поэтому ячейки физической таблицы были заполнены как в http://newtableofelements.blogspot.com и появились неизвестные элементы с номерами 72-75 и 108-111. Которые требовали обьяснения. При рассмотрении результатов измерения зарядов ядер или атомных номеров Джеймсом Чедвиком, я заметил, что заряд ядра платины скорее равен не 78, а стремится к 82, что соответствует разработанной таблице. Почти 30 лет поднимаю вопрос о повторении измерений зарядов ядер атомов, т.к. у урана, наверное, заряд больше, чем принято, а он применяется на АЭС.

Литий и бериллий в зависимости от температуры изменяют кристаллические решетки примерно также как скандий и титан. Что говорит о правильности нашей таблицы химических элементов. http://structurecrystal.blogspot.com